Remains from the site dating to the Second Temple period include hundreds of Aramaic ostraca,[1] what appears to be a 4th-century BCE shrine dedicated to Yahweh,[2] and a burial cave featuring Hebrew inscriptions dating from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE.[3]
Excavations
In the 1930s, Ben Zvi visited Khirbet al-Qum and stayed at the residence of Sheikh Suleiman from the Irgum family. Suleiman, the owner of the ruins at the site, said they had Jewish origins. He expressed interest in dating the site and inquired whether it was referenced in the "Torah".[4]
Two Iron Age bench tombs carved into natural rock were discovered at el-Qom; both were investigated by William Dever in 1967 following their discovery by tomb robbers.[6] Both tombs contain inscriptions, dating from the second half of the 8th century BCE,[7] slightly after the Asheratic Kuntillet Ajrudinscriptions. The inscription from Tomb 2 is associated with a "magic hand" symbol, and reads:
"Uriyahu the honourable has written this
Blessed is/be Uriyahu by Yahweh
And [because?] from his oppressors by his asherah he has saved him
Unlike the Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions, this inscription do not include a place name with the name of Yahweh (the Kuntillet Ajrud inscriptions talk of "Yahweh of Samaria" and "Yahweh of Teman"); this seems to indicate that they were written after the fall of Samaria, which left Yahweh as the god of one state only.[10]
the inscriptions from Khirbet el-Qom and Kuntillet Ajrud, along with great Levantine archives such as Ebla archive, Ugarit archive and Mari archive, were important factors in the reconceptualization of the ancient Israelite religion and its understanding as a part and parcel of its Near Eastern/Levantine/West Semitic/Canaanite environment.[11][12]
There is some scholarly debate about the translation, particularly for line three.[13][14]
A jug inscribed "to/for Yahmol" and a bowl inscribed "El" were also found.[15]
Khirbet el-Qom may have housed a Yahwistic shrine in the 4th century BCE, likely serving the small Judean population of northern Idumea, making it one of three known Yahwistic shrines in ancient Israel during this period, alongside the Second Temple in Jerusalem and the Samaritan Temple on Mount Gerizim.[2]
Roman period
A burial cave in El-Qom contained three Hebrew funerary inscriptions dating from the 1st century BCE to the 2nd century CE, bearing names such as Miriam and Shalom. Currently, they are housed in the Israel Antiquities Authority storage facilities in Beit Shemesh.[3]
Identification
Based on the findings and the possible name preservation of the ancient name in the adjacent valley of Wadi es-Safir, it has been suggested that Khirbet el-Qum is Shafir, a place mentioned in the Book of Micah (1:11).[18]
^ abKnoppers, Gary (2019). Jews and Samaritans: the origins and history of their early relations. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 125. ISBN978-0-19-006879-0.
^Shea, William H. “The Khirbet El-Qom Tomb Inscription Again.” Vetus Testamentum, vol. 40, no. 1, 1990, pp. 110–16
^Margalit, Baruch. “Some Observations on the Inscription and Drawing from Khirbet El-Qôm.” Vetus Testamentum, vol. 39, no. 3, 1989, pp. 371–78
^Alice Mandell, and Jeremy Smoak. "Reading and Writing in the Dark at Khirbet El-Qom: The Literacies of Ancient Subterranean Judah." Near Eastern Archaeology, vol. 80, no. 3, 2017, pp. 188–95
^David F. Graf, 'Petra and the Nabataeans in the Early Hellenistic Period: the literary and archaeological evidence,' in Michel Mouton,Stephan G. Schmid (eds.), Men on the Rocks: The Formation of Nabataean Petra, Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH, 2013 pp.35-55 p.47
^Diana Vikander Edelman, The Origins of the Second Temple: Persion Imperial Policy and the Rebuilding of Jerusalem, Routledge 2005, ISBN9781845530174, p. 265 [1]
^Kochavi, Moshe, ed. (1972). Judaea, Samaria and the Golan: Archaeological Survey 1967-1968 (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Carta. p. 29.
